The Pallavars of Kanchi ( Kanchipuram ) :
There is difference of opinion among historians about the origin of the Pallavars.
We have come across Pallavarajan Vishnugopal among the kings of South India whom Samudraguptan had conquered but allowed them to retain their kingdoms accepting Samudraguptan as their overlord.
But nothing is known after Vishnugopal till we reach the end of the sixth century A.D. when Singhabahu or Singhavishnu occupied the Pallavar throne and gave a continuity to the Pallavar rule. Singhabahu conquered the Great Cholar kingdom as well as many other kingdoms of the south. He even extended his dominions to Ceylon ( Ilangkai , Sri Lanka ) . Kanchi ( Kanchipuram ) was the capital of the Pallavar kingdom.
After Singhabahu, his son Mahendravarman I occupied the Pallavar throne. He was engaged in a life and death struggle with the Chalukyas of Vatapi. Pulakesin II was the Chalukyan king of Vatapi at that time. In 609 or 610 Pulakesin defeated Mahendravarman I and occupied Vengi from him. Pulakesin had appointed his younger brother ruler of Vengi. This was the faint beginning of the East- Chalukya kingdom of Vengi.
Mahendravarman I was a great patron of sculpture and architecture. During his reign Trichinpalli, Chengelpat, northern and southern Aracot were studded with rock-cut temples of extraordinary beauty. These are still extant and force the admiration of visitors. Mahendravarman had constructed a city called Mahendrabadhi and a large aquaduct called Mahendrabapi. He was originally a Jaina but later on became a Saiva.
Next king was Mahendravarman’s son Narasinghavarman. He also waged relentless war with the Chalukyas. He succeeded temporarily in defeating the Chalukyas of Vatapi and in occupying their capital at Vatapi. Under Narasinghavarma Pallava domination was established all over South India. Narasinghavarma took the assistance of the king of Ceylon in defeating the Chalukyas.
As a reward for this assistance Narasinghavarman helped the king of Ceylon ( Ilangkai ) to become independent of the Chalukyas. During the reign of Narasinghavarman , Hiuen T-Sang visited the kingdom of the Pallavar and from his account it is known that the city of Kanchi ( Kanchipuram ) spread over five to six square miles. The land of the Pallavar kingdom was very fertile and there was abundance of agricultural crops, flowers, fruits, etc.
The capital city had numerous Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina temples. Large number of Buddhist monks used to live in Buddhist monasteries. King himself was a great patron of sculpture and architecture. It was during his reign that the seven Ratham after the names of the heroes of Mahabharatam, such as Judhisthirar ratham, Draupadi ratham, Bheeman ratham etc. were cut from huge stones at Mahabalipuram.
After Narasinghavarman his son Mahendran II and after him Parameswaran II became king at Kanchi ( Kanchipuram ) . The Pallavar King Narasinghavarman II was a great patron of architecture. It was during his reign that the Kailasanathar Temple of Kanchi, the temples on the sea coast of Mahabalipuram were built. During his reign Chalukya King Vikramadityan II occupied the Pallavar capital Kanchi ( Kanchipuram ). Later on with the defeat of the Pallavars at the hands of the Cholars the Pallavar Power came to an end and the Pallavars were reduced to small feudatories. The last of the Pallavar kings was Aparajitavarman.
In political and cultural fields the Pallavars of Kanchi constituted an important chapter in the history of India. In the southern part of the Pennar and the Tungabhadra they were the first to build up a strong power. Their authority had spread for a time even over Ceylon ( Sri Lanka ) . In sculpture and architecture the Pallavars rule constituted a landmark in Indian history.
Pallavars Art:
The excellence that the sculpture and architectural arts had attained in South India can very well be understood from a look at the remains of the temples of the Pallavars. During the King Kushanan period the indegenous art that had flourished at Mathura and Amaravati continued to develop without any break and reached its peak and flowering under the Pallavars. Some of the excellent specimens of the Pallavar art can be seen at Kanchi and Mahabalipuram.
Of course the earliest Pallavar specimens of art have not survived but what we find at Kanchi and Mahabalipuram are those of the later Pallavar times. The Pallavar artists made their temples out of large rocks yet their sense of proportion and jewellers’ precision with which they performed their task are astonishing. All this bears eloquent testimony to the extraordinarily high standard reached by the Pallavar artists.
The Tripurantakeswar and Airabateswar temples of Kanchi, Mukteswarar and Kailasanathar temples at Mahabalipuram are the best specimens of the arts of sculpture and architecture of the Pallavars. The style and execution of the work force our admiration. The images sculptured on the walls of the temples are excellent specimens both from the points of view of proportion and anatomy.
Draupadi ratham, Arjunar ratham, Bheeman ratham, Dharmaraja ratham etc. are rathams i.e. chariots cut-out of massive rocks were stupendous sculptural feats which had been mastered by the Pallavar artists. These rathas were based on the tales of the Mahabharatam. Many of the temples at Java were built after the fashion of the rathas at Mahabalipuram. The Pallavar sculpture and architecture have occupied a position of distinction in the history of Indian art.
Pallavar Literature:
The Pallavar kings were patrons of Sanskrit and Tamil language and literature. Kanchi, the capital of the Pallavas, was a centre of Tamil and Sanskrit studies. Poet Bharavi, the author of Kiratarjuniyam, was the court poet of Pallavar King Singhabahu or Singhavishnu. Sanskrit scholar Dandin was the greatest litterateur of that period. Pallavar King Mahendravarman was himself a great man of letters.
Religion of the Pallavars:
The Pallavar kings were Brahmanical Hindus. King Singhabahu or Singhavishnu was perhaps a worshipper of Vishnu. Mahendravarman I, the Pallavar king, was originally a Jaina but he came under the influence of a Saivite saint Appar and was converted into Saivism. He caused the construction of temples for Vishnu and Brahmman.
Towards the end of his reign he became intolerant of Jainism and ordered the demolition of Jaina monasteries. But generally speaking it cannot be said that the Pallavar kings were intolerant of other religions. The attitude of Mahendravarman towards the Jainas was something unusual of the Pallavar kings.
Hiuen T-Sang noticed about ten thousand Buddhist monks and numerous Buddhist monasteries and Viharas of the Mahayana sect within the Pallava .dominion. He also mentioned the existence of a large number of Jainas within the Pallavar dominion. Thus it may be safely concluded that although the Pallavar kings were Brahmmanical Hindus they were not intolerant of other religions.
The Great Cholars Empire :
In the inscription of Mauryan Emperor The Great Asokar the Cholars of the far south had been described as an independent people. From the writings of the ancient Greek, Roman and Tamil writers there are references to the maritime activities of the Cholars. But there is no detailed information about the political history of the Cholars.
Karikalan Cholan was the first historical king of the Cholars. It is said that he had once conquered Ceylon ( Ilangkai , Sri Lanka ) and brought a few thousand labourers from there to his own country. With the help of these labourers he constructed a bund in the river Kaveri and built a new capital named Kaveripattinam.
From the contemporary literature it is learnt that in the 3rd century A.D. the Cholar Power became very weak taking advantage of which the Pallavars occupied the Cholar dominions. But in the eighth century A.D. the Cholar recovered their territories when the Pallavars were defeated at the hands of the Chalukyas and also their former territories.
Vijalalayan Cholan was the Cholar king who made the Cholar Power independent during the middle of the ninth century and his son Adityan Cholan completed the ouster of the Pallavars and set up the Cholar kingdom in fullest sovereignty. It was from the time of his son Parantakan Cholan I that systematic history of the Cholar dynasty can be found (907).
Parantakan Cholan I was an intrepid soldier and a great military strategist. He invaded the Pandiyan kingdom and occupied its capital Madurai. He also invaded Ceylon ( Sri Lanka ) . It was Parantakan Cholan I, who was the founder of the Power and greatness of the house of the Cholars. He was succeeded by a few weak kings during whose reign there was disorder in the Great Cholar kingdom. At last with the accession of Raja- raja in 985 peaces and order returned to the Cholar kingdom.
Rajaraja Cholan was the greatest king of the Cholar dynasty. With him began the history of peace and prosperity of the Cholar kingdom. During his long reign Great Rajaraja Cholan conquered many territories and made himself the unquestioned master of the Deccan. He defeated the Cheran and Pandiyan kingdoms and occupied Vengi by defeating the East-Chalukyas.
With the help of his powerful navy Rajaraja Cholan conquered Ceylon ( Sri Lanka ) , Indonesia ( Sri Vijaya Empire ) , Thailand , Singapore , Myanmar ( Pegu ) and the Malaya ( Kadaram , Kedah ) . His kingdom spread from present Madras Presidency to Coorg, Quilon, Pandiyan kingdom, Ceylon, Malabar coasts.
Rajaraja Cholan was not great as a conqueror alone; he was equally great as patron of literature, art and architecture. The famous Sivan temple at Tanjore was built under his patronage. On the walls of that temple the accounts of Rajaraja Cholan’s wars have been inscribed. The temple bears testimony to Rajaraja Cholan’s greatness both at war and peace. He was really a great king and the appellation Rajaraja Cholan the Great has been well deserved by him.
Rajaraja was a devotee of Sivan but he was tolerant to other religions. He made a liberal gift to the Burmese Buddhist temple at Nagapattinam.
Great Rajendra Cholan ,
Emperor of Gangaikonda Cholapuram :
The Great Rajaraja Cholan was succeeded by his son Rajenthira CholaN . As a prince he assisted his father in administration of the country and on accession to the throne he adopted the policy of his father of imperial expansion. He sent his invincible navy to the Bay of Bengal and succeeded in occupying Pegu, Andaman, and Nicobar etc. for some time.
He defeated the Pala King Mahipal I of Bengal and in commemoration of this victory adopted the title ‘GanggaiKondan ’. He also established a new capital of the name of Ganggai Konda Cholapuram and decorated this city by constructing a number of beautiful buildings. He excavated a large lake in the middle of the city.
Rajathi Raja Cholan :
On the death of Great Rajenthira Cholan, his son Rajadhiraja Cholan ascended the throne. The major part of his reign was consumed in putting down internal rebellion and wars with Pandiyan kingdom and Ceylon ( Sri Lanka ) . In his attempt to invade the Chalukya territory he was killed at the hands of the Chalukya king.
Rajadhiraja Cholan was succeeded by Athi Rajendra Cholan. He was as incapable as high-handed as a ruler. The subjects were so dissatisfied at his rule that he had to lose his life at the hands of an assassin. During the rule of Athi Rajendra Cholan the great Vaishnava philosopher Ramanujam lived at Srirangam within Cholar kingdom.
Ramanujam did not receive fair treatment at the hands of Athi Rajendra Cholan who was a Saivam ( Lord Sivan ) and the policy of persecution that he followed towards the Vaishnavas ( Lord Vishnu ) led Ramanujam to leave Srirangam and take refuge in Mysore. The Cholar kings after Athi Rajendra Cholan were weak and worthless, taking advantage of which Malik Kafur occupied Cholar kingdom and thereby brought about the end of the Cholars ( 1070 A.D ) .
Later Cholars (1070–1279)
Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukyas began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Rajaraja Chola's daughter married Chalukya prince Vimaladitya , and Rajendra Chola's daughter Ammanga Devi was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Rajaraja Narendran . Virarajendra Cholar's son, Athirajendra Chola, was assassinated in a civil disturbance in 1070, and Kulothunga Cholan I, the son of Ammanga Devi and Rajaraja Narendran, ascended the Cholar throne. Thus began the Later Chola dynasty.
The Later Chola dynasty was led by capable rulers such as Kulothunga Cholan I, his son Vikrama Cholan, other successors like Rajaraja Cholan II, Rajathiraja Cholan II, and Kulothunga Cholan III, who conquered Kalinga , Indonesia ( Sri Vijaya , Majapahit ) , Pegu ( Myanmar ) , Eelam ( Sri Lanka ) , and Kadaram ( Kedah , Malaysia ) . However, the rule of the later Cholas between 1218, starting with Rajaraja Cholar II, to the last emperor Rajendra Cholar III was not as strong as those of the emperors between 850–1215. Around 1118, they lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the Hoysala Empire.
However, these were only temporary setbacks, because immediately following the accession of king Vikrama Cholan, the son and successor of Kulothungan Cholan I, the Cholars lost no time in recovering the province of Vengi by defeating Chalukya Someshvara III and also recovering Gangavadi from the Hoysalas. The Cholar Empire, though not as strong as between 850–1150, was still largely territorially intact under Rajaraja Cholan II (1146–1175) a fact attested by the construction and completion of the third grand Cholar architectural marvel, the chariot-shaped Airavatesvarar Temple at Dharasuram on the outskirts of modern Kumbakonam. Cholar administration and territorial integrity until the rule of Kulothunga Cholan III was stable and very prosperous up to 1215, but during his rule itself, the decline of the Cholar power started following his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–16. Subsequently, the Cholars also lost control of the island of Sri Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power ( Sri Lanka ).
In continuation of the decline, also marked by the resurgence of the Pandyan dynasty as the most powerful rulers in South India, a lack of a controlling central administration in its erstwhile-Pandyan territories prompted a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. Details of the Pandyan civil war and the role played by the Cholas and Sinhalas, are present in the Mahavamsam as well as the Pallavarayanpettai Inscriptions.
In the 12th century, the maharajah of Chola sent Sri Lumay, also known as Raja Lumayan , to the central islands of present-day Philippines to establish a base for expeditionary forces. He was a minor prince of the Cholar dynasty which occupied Sumatra at the time. He later rebelled and established his own independent state, which would become the Rajahnate of Cebu ( Philippines ) .
The Cholars, under Rajaraja Cholan III and later, his successor Rajendra Cholan III, were quite weak and therefore, experienced continuous trouble. One feudatory, the Kadavan chieftain Kopperunchingan I, even held Rajaraja Chola III as hostage for sometime. At the close of the 12th century, the growing influence of the Hoysalas replaced the declining Chalukyas as the main player in the Kannada country, but they too faced constant trouble from the Seunas and the Kalachuris, who were occupying Chalukya capital because those empires were their new rivals. So naturally, the Hoysalas found it convenient to have friendly relations with the Cholas from the time of Kulothunga Chola III, who had defeated Hoysala Veera Ballala II, who had subsequent marital relations with the Chola monarch. This continued during the time of Rajaraja Chola III the son and successor of Kulothunga Cholan III.
The Pandiyans in the south had risen to the rank of a great power who ultimately banished the Hoysalas from Malanadu or Kannada country, who were allies of the Cholars from Tamil country and the demise of the Cholars themselves ultimately was caused by the Pandiyans in 1279. The Pandiyans first steadily gained control of the Tamil country as well as territories in Sri Lanka, Chera country, Telugu country under Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II and his able successor Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan before inflicting several defeats on the joint forces of the Cholas under Rajaraja Cholan III, his successor Rajendra Cholan III and the Hoysalas under Someshwaran , his son Ramanathan , Rajendra III tried to survive by aligning with the Kadava Pallavars and the Hoysalas in turn in order to counter the constantly rising power of the Pandiyans who were the major players in the Tamil country from 1215 and had intelligently consolidated their position in Madurai-Rameswaram-Ilam ( Sri Lanka ) -Cheranadu and Kanniyakumari belt, and had been steadily increasing their territories in the Kaveri belt between Dindigul-Tiruchy-Karur-Satyamangalam as well as in the Kaveri Delta i.e., Thanjavur-Mayuram-Chidambaram-Vriddhachalam-Kanchi, finally marching all the way up to Arcot—Tirumalai-Nellore-Visayawadai-Vengi-Kalingam belt by 1250.
Cholar Administration:
The Cholar administration was as efficient as integrated. From the inscription of Parantakan I the details about the Cholar administration can be found. The basis of administration was the village. A large village or a group of villages formed Kurram. Every village had arrangement for self-government. A village assembly of the nature of village-panchayat was in charge of the administration of the village.
There were officers who looked after the activities of the village assembly. The village assembly had control over all lands belonging to the village. The members of the village assembly would constitute themselves into small committees each in charge of the ponds, gardens, judicial system of the village. Every village assembly had a treasury of its own.
A few large villages or kurrams would constitute a district, i.e., Nadu, and a few Nadus would form a Division or Kottam. A few Divisions or Kuttams would constitute a Province. There were six provinces in the country which was called Cholamandalam.
One-sixth of the produce of the soil was realised as revenue. This apart other taxes had also to be paid. But the total realisation by the state as land revenue, taxes etc. did not exceed more than 4/15th of the income of a person. Land revenue could be paid either by money or by produce of the soil. The currency of the time was gold Kasu.
The Cholar kings developed a powerful navy for the purpose of developing a maritime empire and sea-borne trade. For the purpose of irrigation a few massive irrigation plans were executed. For the purposes of excavating irrigation canal, public thoroughfares forced labour was used. Royal roads were always kept in good trim.
Cholar Art:
The Chola art essentially means Chola sculpture and architecture. The Cholas had practically no contribution to the field of painting. In sculpture and architecture the Chola attained the highest water-mark of excellence. The Chola sculpture and architecture were free from any foreign influence and may be regarded as copy and continuation of the Pallava sculpture and architecture.
Most of the Cholar kings were patrons of sculpture and architecture. The best specimen of the Cholar art of the time is the Rajrajeswar (Sivan) temple of Tanjore. This temple was made under the orders of Rajrajeswar. This beautiful temple has fourteen tiers in its top and each tier has been cut-out of a big stone in a circular fashion. On the walls of the temples of Gogaikondacholapuram beautiful images have been sculptured.
The main characteristic of the Cholar art is its massiveness. The Chola artists have chiselled out beautiful temples from large rocks and executed their work with jeweller’s precision. Fergusson, an English historian, aptly remarked that the Chola artists planned like giants and finished like jewellers.
Great Pandiyan Kingdom:
Nothing is known of the ancient history of the Pandiyan kingdom. When Hiuen T-Sang visited the Deccan the Pandiyan country was under the Pallavars. Of course Hiuen T-Sang did not visit the Pandiyan country. The Pandiyan King , Sundara Pandiyan was originally a Jaina, later on he adopted Saivism and is said to have followed a policy of persecution of the Jainas.
Later on the Pandiyan kings were constantly at war with Pallavars, Cholars and Ceylon ( Sri Lanka ) . In the eleventh and the twelfth centuries the Pandiyans were compelled to owe allegiance to the Cholars. It was in the thirteenth century that the Pandiyan kingdom acquired independence and became one of the important powers of the Deccan.
In the same century Marco Polo visited Pandiyan country twice—once in 1288 and again in 1292. In his account Kayal, the capital of the Pandiyan kingdom, was a prosperous port and a beautiful city. With the fall of the Tamil Power at the hands of Malik Kafur in 1310, the Pandiyan kingdom also came to an end.
Cheran Kingdom:
Nothing is practically known of the Cheran kingdom. In Asoka’s inscription there is reference to Keralaputra, i.e. Cheran kingdom which was then an independent country. But later on it was annexed to Cholar kingdom.
Maritime Activities of the Tamil Kingdoms:
From the remotest time of history India had commercial and cultural relations with the outside world. During the Gupta Age as also during the post-Gupta period this contact remained undisturbed. But the commercial and cultural relations became more fruitful through the South Indian countries.
In the Periplus written in the middle of the first century A.D. the names of the ports of South India have been given. From the South Indian ports of Muziris, the present Cranganore, Kayal, Korkai and from the northern Indian ports, a sea-borne trade with the Western countries was carried on.
In the Greek and Roman accounts there are references to the commercial relations of the Tamil countries of Cheran, Cholar and Pandiyan countries with the East and the West. Later on more than one Cholar king conquered Ceylon. Karikala Cholan the first Cholar king had conquered Ceylon and brought a few thousand labourers from there whom he engaged in constructing a bund in the Kaveri river and in building a new capital called Kaveripattinam.
Rajaraja Cholar the Great, the Cholar king also conquered Ceylon, obviously because it had become independent in the meantime, Laccadives and Maldives and built up a maritime empire. He had a large navy which he used for both military and commercial purposes. Rajendra Cholan conquered Pegu from Burma as also Andaman and Nicobar islands.
His merchant marine used to constantly carry on sea-borne trade with Burma, Malayan archipelago etc. Kaveripadinam was the greatest port of the Cholar kingdom. The best port of the Pandiyan kingdom was Karikala Cholan. Merchants of South India would start with their merchandise for Alexandria, Syria, etc. across the Arabian Sea.
The Indian merchandise used to be sent from Alexandria, Syria etc. to the western countries. Later on the Arab merchants began to take direct part in the Indian trade and would come to the South Indian ports for purchase of merchandise, particularly spices.
South India had commercial and cultural relations with the South- East Asian countries like Sumatra, Java, Malay, Borneo etc. From these places Indian merchant’s ships used to reach China, Japan etc. That South India had commercial relations with China is proved from the extensive number of Roman coins that have been discovered in South India. In the first century B.C. an emissary was sent from the Pandiyan country to Emperor Augustus of Rome. Evidence of seven other similar embassies has been found.
It goes without saying that in the wake of commerce cultural influence also spread to the South-East Asian countries with which southern India had a brisk commercial relation. In the matter of colonisation of countries in South-East Asia South Indian countries took the lead.
Between the second and the fifth century A.D. Indian colonies were set up in Malaya ( Malaysia ) , Cambodia, Annam, Sumatra, Java, Bali, Borneo and even in Philippine ( Cebu ) islands. In this region the Saivism from South India had spread. Side by side with Saivism Buddhism also had spread in this region. Hindu manners and customs, influence of Sanskrit language had also spread in this region.
Chola king Rajaraja Cholan the Great had paid a huge amount of money to the Burmese Buddhist temple at Nagapatinam. From this it was proved beyond doubt that a large number of Burmese used to live in that place. The Pallavar and Cholar sculpture and architectural style had been imitated at Java, Sumatra and other Indian colonies in South-East Asia. In the temples of these places the South Indian architectural style can be noticed even today.
The South Indian countries held sway over Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal for a long time. Later on when the Portuguese merchants had seized these areas from the Indian hands the South Indian commercial and maritime supremacy came to an end.
